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900

900

Events

- Persian scientist, Rhazes, distinguished smallpox from measles in the course of his writings. Holding against any sort of orthodoxy, particularly Aristotle's physics, he maintained "the conception of an 'absolute' time, regarded by him as a never-ending flow".
- Gyeonhwon formally establishes the kingdom of Hubaekje in southwestern Korea.
- Merchants from southwest Asia and India settle on the east-African coast, trading gold, beads and metal for ivory and slaves.
- Harold I of the Yngling or Scilfing dynasty subdues the petty kings of Norway and conquers the Orkney and Shetland islands.

Births

Deaths

- August 13 - Zwentibold, last King of Lotharingia (b. 870)
- Donald II, King of the Scots and Picts
- Fulk the Venerable, Archbishop of Rheims, assassinated by Count Baldwin II of Flanders Category:900 ko:900년

Persians

:This article is about the ethnic Persians (Iranians) of Iran. For information about Central Asian Persians see Tajiks. For the ancient empire, see Persian Empire. The Persians of Iran (officially named "Persia" by West until 1935 while still referred to as Persia by some) are an Iranian people who speak Persian (locally named Fârsi by native speakers) and often refer to themselves as ethnic Iranians as well. Religiously, most of the Persians in Iran follow the Shia sect of Islam, while small minorities of Sunni Muslims, Persian Jews, Persian Christians, Zoroastrians, and Bahá'ís remain. The ancient Persians from the province of Pars (Fars) became the rulers of a large empire under the Achaemenid dynasty (The Persian pronunciation is Ha-Khuh-Manesh-ee-yun) in the sixth century BC. Over the centuries Persia was ruled by various dynasties; some of them were ethnic Persians (the Sassanids, Buwayhids, Samanids, Safavids and others), and some of them were not (the Seleucids, Seljuk Turks, Mongols, and others). The Persian civilization spawned three major religions: Zoroastrianism, Mithraism, and Manichaeanism. All of these reflect the extreme dualism of Persian culture which has also significantly influenced Judeo-Christianity and Western civilization. In addition, Persian civilization has affected its neighbors through culture, religion, and language. According to the 2004 CIA World Factbook, 51% of Iran's current population is ethnically Persian. Other estimates put the figure as high as 60%. A number of other ethnic groups are represented in Iran, including the non-Persian Aryan group Kurds; the Turkic Azerbaijanis and Turkmen; and a few Arabs (approximately 3%), Baluchis, and other minorities. See Demographics of Iran for more detail. Significant numbers of Persians reside outside of Iran with the largest communities found in the United States, Turkey, and Iraq. Smaller communities are also found in surrounding countries and the Arabian Peninsula.

Origins and roots

The Persians of Iran are mainly descended from the Indo-Iranian branch of the Aryans, an Indo-European people that migrated to the region between 2000-1000 BCE as well as indigenous populations such as the Elamites and Dravidians. The Persians have been, over time, genetically and/or socially modified and impacted by various groups including the Greeks, Scythians, Parthians, ancient Hebrews, Arabs, Turks, Mongols, and various other Eurasian invaders. The Persian Jews are a good example of a Hebrew population that moved to Iran about 2,700 years ago and assimilated and mixed with the Persians so that today they speak Persian and are virtually identical to other Persians except for religion. The Persian language and other Iranian tongues all arrived with the Aryans. The first record of the Persians comes from an Assyrian inscription from the 800s BCE which calls them the Parsu and mentions them alongside another Aryan group, the Madai (Medes). See also Persian Empire and History of Iran.

Related sub-groups

Ethnic Persians can also be found outside of Iran and include the Tajiks and Parsiwan (also known as the Farsiwan) who can be found in Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Pakistan, and Xinjiang, while another group called the Tats lives mainly in the Caucasus region concentrated in Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Russian Dagestan. The Parsis of India and eastern Pakistan are also largely descended from Persian Zoroastrian refugees who fled from Persia following the Arab conquests. In addition, a group called the Hazara are a Persianized Turkic-Mongol ethnic group.

Persian language

Main article: Persian language. The Persian language is one of the world's oldest languages still in use today. It is called Farsi in Iran and Dari or Tajiki east of Iran. It is part of the Iranian sub-section of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Persian-speakers are today in the majority in Iran, Tajikistan, and possibly Afghanistan[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3717092.stm], and form a large minority in Uzbekistan as well. Smaller groups of Persian speakers are found in western Pakistan and western China, as well as in Bahrain and Iraq and Azerbaijan.

Persian Art

Azerbaijan

Persian Music

Main article: Music of Iran. The music of Persia goes back to the days of Barbod in the royal Sassanid courts, and even earlier.

Persian Architecture

Main article: Iranian architecture. Architecture is one of the areas where Persians have made outstanding contributions.
Persian rugs
Main article: Persian rug. Gottfried Semper called rugs "the original means of separating space". Rug weaving was thus developed by ancient civilizations as a basis of architecture. Persian rugs have a history as old as humanity itself.

Persian Gardens

Main article: Persian Gardens. The Persian Garden was designed as a reflection of paradise on earth; the word "garden" itself coming from Persian roots.

Persian Women

Main article: Persian Woman. She is the star of 1001 Nights. She is the source of color and life in Persia. Who is the Persian woman? Oriental, yet markedly distinguishable.

Persian contributions to humanity

Main article: Culture of Iran. From the humble brick, to the windmill. Persians have strived to create a better world by mixing creativity with art.

External links

- [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=pes Ethnologue information for Western Persians]
- [http://www.joshuaproject.net/peoples.php?rop3=107987 Statistics on geographic distribution of Persians worldwide]
- Category:Ethnic groups of Iran
- Category:Iranian peoples
- Category:Ethnic groups of Asia
- Category:Ethnic groups of the Middle East

Rhazes

Al-Razi, (full name Abū Bakr Muhammad Ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi) (ابو بکر الرازی), also known as "Zakaria al-Razi" in Arabic; or in Latin as Rhazes and Rasis. According to al-Biruni born in Rayy, Iran in the year 251AH/865AD and died in Rayy, Iran 313AH/925AD. 925AD He was a versatile Persian philosopher who made fundamental and lasting contributions to the fields of medicine, chemistry, alchemy, and philosophy. Razi realized no organized system of philosophy, but taking in account the time he lived in, he must be reckoned as one of the most vigorous and liberal thinkers in Islam and perhaps in the history of human thought. He was a pure rationalist, extremely confident of the power of reason, free from any kind of prejudice, and very bold and daring in expressing his ideas without a qualm. He believed in man, progress and in "God the Wise". He is credited with the discovery of sulfuric acid, the "work horse" of modern chemistry, and chemical engineering among other things; he also discovered ethanol and its refinement and use in medicine. Razi was a prolific writer: he wrote 184 books and articles in various fields of science. According to historian Ibn an-Nadim, Razi distinguished himself as the best physician of his time who had fully mastered Greek medical knowledge. He traveled in many lands and rendered service to several princes and rulers especially to Baghdad where he had his lab. As a teacher in Medicine he attracted a great amount of students of all diciplines and was said to be compassionate, kind, upright, and devoted to the service of his patients, whether rich or poor. The modern-day Razi Institute near Tehran, Iran was named after him, and 'Razi Day' ('Pharmacy Day') is commemorated in Iran every August 27.

Biography

In Persian and Arabic, Razi means "from the city of Rayy (also spelled RAY, REY, or RAI, old Persian RAGHA, Latin RHAGAE) formerly one of the great cities of World)", an ancient town on the southern slopes of the Elburz Range that skirts the south of the Caspian Sea, situated near Tehran, Iran. In this city (like Avicenna) he accomplished most of his work. In his early life he could have been a jeweller (Baihaqi), a money-changer (Cf. ibn abi Usaibi'ah) but more likely a lute-player who changed his interest in music to alchemy( Cf. ibn Juljul, Sa'id, ibn Khallikan, Usaibi'ah, al-Safadi). At the age of thirty (Safadi says after forty) he stopped his study of alchemy because its experiments caused an eye-disease (Cf. al-Biruni), obliging him to search for physicians and medicine to cure it. al-Birflni, Baihaqi and others, say this was the reason why he began his medical studies. He was very studious working night and day. His teacher was 'Ali ibn Rabban al-Tabari (Cf. al-Qifti, Usaibi'ah), a physician and philosopher born in Merv about 192/808 (d. approx. 240/855). Al-Razi studied medicine and probably also philosophy with ibn Rabban al-Tabari. Therefore his interest in spiritual philosophy can be traced to this master, whose father was a Rabbinist versed in the Scriptures. According to Prof.Hamed Abdel-reheem Ead, Professor of Chemistry at the Faculty of Science, University of Cairo (Cf. the Alchemy Website): " (...) Al-Razi took up the study of medicine after his first visit to Baghdad, when he was at least 30 years old, under the well-known physician Ali ibn Sahl (a Jewish convert to Islam, belonging to the famous medical school of Tabaristan or Hyrcania. He showed such a skill in the subject that he quickly surpassed his master, and wrote no fewer than a hundred medical books. He also composed 33 treatises on natural science (not including alchemy),mathematics and astronomy (...)." Al-Razi became famous in his native city as a physician. He became Director of the hospital of Rayy (Cf. ibn Juljul, al-Qifti, ibn abi Usaibi'ah), during the reign of Mansur ibn Ishaq ibn Ahmad ibn Asad who was Governor of Rayy from 290-296/902-908 on behalf of his cousin Ahmad ibn Isma'il ibn Ahmad, second Samanian ruler. Razi dedicated his al-Tibb al-'Mansurito Mansur ibn Ishaq ibn Ahmad , which was verified in a handwritten manuscript of hisbook. This was refuted by ibn al-Nadim', but al-Qifti and ibn abi Usaibi'ah confirmed that the named Mansur was indeed Mansur ibn Isma'il who died in 365/975. al-Razi moved from Rayy to Baghdad during Caliph Muktafi's reign (approx.289/901-295/907) where he again held a position as Chief Director of a hospital. After al-Muktafi's death (295/907) al-Razi allegedly returned to Rayy where he gathered many students around him. As ibn al-Nadim relates in Fihrist, al-Razi was then a Shaikh (title given to one entitled to teach) "with a big head similar to a sack", surrounded by several circles of students. When someone arrived with a scientific question, this question was passed on to students of the 'first circle'. if they did not know the answer, it was passed on to those of the 'second crcle'... and so on and on, until at last, when all others had failed to supply an answer, it came to al-Razi himself. We know of at least one of these students who became a physician. Al-Razi was a very generous man, with a humane behavior towards his patients, and acting charitable to the poor, He used to give them full treatment without charging any fee, nor demanding any other payment. When he was not occupied with pupils or patients he was always writing and studying. This fact might have been the cause for the gradual weakening of his sight which finally resulted in becoming blind in both eyes. Some say the cause of his blindness was that he used to eat too many broad beans (baqilah). His eye affliction started with cataracts and ended in total blindness. The rumor goes that he refused to be treated for cataract, declaring that he "had seen so much of the world that he was tired of it." However, this seems to be an anecdote more than a historical fact. One of his pupils from Tabaristan came to look after him, but, according to al-Biruni, he refused to be treated proclaiming it was useless as his hour of death was approaching. Some days later he died in Rayy, on the 5th of Sha'ban 313/27th of October 925.

Al-Razi's Masters and Opponents

We already mentioned that Razi studied medicine under 'Ali ibn Rabban al-Tabari, however, Ibn al-Nadim indicates that he studied philosophy under al-Balkhi, who had travelled much and possessed great knowledge of philosophy and ancient sciences. Some even say that al-Razi attributed some of al-Balkhi's books on philosophy to himself. We know nothing about this man called al-Balkhi, not even his full name. Razi's opponents, on the contrary, are well-known. They are the following: 1. Abu al-Qasim al-Balki, chief of the Mu'tazilah of Baghdad (d. 319/931), a contemporary of al-Razi who wrote many refutations about al-Razi's books, especially in his Ilm al-Ilahi. His disagreements with al-Razi entailed his thoughts on the concept of 'Time'. 2. Shuhaid ibn al-Husain al-Balkhi, with whom al-Razi had many controversies; one of these was on the concept of 'Pleasure', expounded in his Tafdll Ladhdhat al-Nafs which abu Sulaiman al-Mantiqi al-Sijistani quotes in his work Siwan al-Hikmah. Al-Balkhi died prior to 329/940. 3. Abu Hatim al-Razi became the most important of all his opponents (d. 322/933-934) and was one of the greatest Isma'ili missionaries. He published his controversies with al-Razi in his book A'lam al-Nubuwwah. Because of this book, al-Razi's thoughts on Prophets and Religion are preserved for us. 4. Ibn al-Tammar (seemingly being abu Bakr Husain al-Tammar, says Kraus) was a physician and he too had some disputes with al-Razi, which is documented by abu Hatim al-Razi in A'lam al-Nubuwwah. Ibn al-Tammar disagreed with al-Razi's book al-Tibb al-Ruhani but al-Razi counteracted this. In fact, al-Razi wrote two antitheses: (a) First refutation of al-Tammar's disagreement with Misma'i concerning 'Matter'. (b) Second refutation of al-Tammar's opinion of 'the Atmosphere of subterranean habitations'. 5.Following are authors as described by al-Razi in his writings: (a) al-Misma'i, a Mutakallim, who opposed 'materialists', counteracted byan al-Razi's treatise. (b) Jarir, a physician who had a theory about 'The eating of black mulberries after consuming water-melon'. (c) al-Hasan ibn Mubarik al-Ummi, to whom al-Razi wrote two epistles with commentaries. (d) al-Kayyal, a Mutakallim: al-Razi wrote a book on about his Theory of the Imam. (e) Mansur ibn Talhah, being the author of the book "Being", which was critized by al-Razi. (f) Muhammad ibn al-Laith al-Rasa'ili whose opposition against alchemists was disputed by al-Razi. 6. Ahmad ibn al-Tayyib al-Sarakhasi (d. 286/899), was an older contemporary of al-Razi. Al-Razi disagreed with him on the question of 'bitter taste'. He moreover opposed his teacher Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi, regarding his writings,in which he discredited alchemists.
- We could add more names to this list of all people opposed by al-Razi, specifically the Mu'tazilah and different Mutakallimin.

Contributions to medicine

Smallpox vs. measles

As chief physician of the Baghdad hospital Razi formulated the first known description of smallpox: :"Smallpox appears when blood 'boils' and is infected, resulting in vapours being expelled. Thus juveline blood (which looks like wet extracts appearing on the skin) is being transformed into richer blood, having the color of mature wine. At this stage, smallpox shows up essentially as 'bubbles found in wine' -(as blisters)- ... this disease can also occur at other times -(meaning: not only during childhood)-. The best thing to do during this first stage is to keep away from it, otherwise this disease might turn into an epidemic." This diagnose is acknowledged by the Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911), which states: "The most trustworthy statements as to the early existence of the disease are found in an account by the 9th-century Arabian (=Persian) physician Rhazes, by whom its symptoms were clearly described, its pathology explained by a humoral or fermentation theory, and directions given for its treatment.". Razi's book: al-Judari wa al-Hasbah was the first book describing smallpox, and was translated more than a dozen times into Latin and other European languages. Its lack of dogmatism and its Hippocratic reliance on clinical observation shows Razi's medical methods. We quote: "The eruption of smallpox is preceded by a continued fever, pain in the back, itching in the nose and nightmares during sleep. These are the more acute symptoms of its approach together with a noticeable pain in the back accompagnied by fever and an itching felt by the patient all over his body.A swelling of the face appears, which comes and goes, and one notices an overall inflametory color noticeable as a strong redness on both cheeks and around both eyes. One experiences a heaviness of the whole body and great restlessness, which expresses itself as a lot of stretching and yawning. There is a pain in the throat and chest and one finds it difficult to breath and cough. Additional symtomps are: dryness of breath, thick spittle, hoarseness of the voice, pain and heaviness of the head, restlessness, nausea and anxiety. (Note the difference: restlessness, nausea and anxiety occur more frequently with 'measles' than with smallpox. At the other hand, pain in the back is more apparent with smallpox than with measles). All together one experiences heat over the whole body, one has an inflamed colon and one showsan overall shining redness, with an very pronounced redness of the gums." Razi was the first physician to diagnose smallpox and measles and the first one to distinguish the difference between them.

Allergies and fever

Razi is also known for having discovered 'allergic asthma', and was the first physician ever, who wrote an article on Allergy and Immunology. In the Sense of Smelling he explains the occurrence of 'rhinitis' after smelling a rose during the Spring: Article on the Reason Why Abou Zayd Balkhi Suffers from Rhinitis When Smelling Roses in Spring. In this article he dicusses seasonal 'rhinitis', which is the same as allergic asthma or hay fever. Razi was the first to realize that fever is a natural defense mechanism, the body's way of fighting disease.

Pharmacy

Rhazes contributed in many ways to the early practice of pharmacy by compiling texts, in which he introduces the use of ' mercurial ointments' and his development of apparatus such as mortars, flasks, spatulas and phials, which were used in pharmacies until the early twentieth century.

Ethics of medicine

On a professional level, Razi introduced many practical, progressive, medical and psychological ideas. He attacked charlatans and fake doctors who roamed the cities and countryside selling their nostrums and 'cures'. At the same time, he warned that even highly educated doctors did not have the answers to all medical problems and could not cure all sicknesses or heal every disease, which was humanly speaking impossible. To become more useful in their services and truer to their calling, Razi advised practitioners to keep up with advanced knowledge by continually studying medical books and exposing themselves to new information. He made a distinction between curable and incurable diseases. Pertaining to the latter, he commented that in the case of advanced cases of cancer and leprosy the physician should not be blamed when he could not cure them. To add a humorous note, Razi felt great pity for physicians who took care for the well being of princes, nobility, and women, because they did not obey the doctor's orders to restrict their diet or get medical treatment, thus making it most difficult being their physician.

Books and articles on medicine

- The Virtuous Life (al-Hawi). ::This monumental medical encyclopedia in nine volumes — known in Europe also as The Large Comprehensive or Continens Liber — contains considerations and criticism on the Greek philosophers Aristotle and Plato, and expresses innovative views on many subjects. Because of this book alone, many scholars consider Razi the greatest medical doctor of the Middle Ages. ::The al-Hawi is not a formal medical encyclopaedia, but a posthumous compilation of Razi's working notebooks, which included knowledge gathered from other books as well as original observations on diseases and therapies, based on his own clinical experience. It is significant since it contains a celebrated monograph on smallpox, the earliest one known. It was translated into Latin in 1279 by Faraj ben Salim, a physician of Sicilian-Jewish origin employed by Charles of Anjou, and after which it had a considerable influence in Europe.
- A medical advisor for the general public (Man la Yahduruhu Tab) ::Razi was possibly the first Persian doctor to deliberately write a home Medical Manual (remedial) directed at the general public. He dedicated it to the poor, the traveler, and the ordinary citizen who could consult it for treatment of common ailments when a doctor was not available. This book, of course, is of special interest to the history of pharmacy since similar books were very popular until the 20th century.Razi described in its 36 chapters,diets and drug components that can be found in either an apothecary, a market place, in well-equipped kitchens, or and in military camps. Thus, every intelligent person could follow its instructions and prepare the proper recipes with good results. ::Some of the illnesses treated were headaches, colds, coughing, melancholy and diseases of the eye, ear, and stomach. For example,he prescribed for a feverish headache: " 2 parts of duhn (oily extract) of rose, to be mixed with 1 part of vinegar, in which a piece of linen cloth is dipped and compressed on the forehead". He recommended as a laxative, " 7 drams of dried violet flowers with 20 pears, macerated and well mixed, then strained. Add to this filtrate, 20 drams of sugar for a drink. In cases of melancholy, he invariably recommended prescriptions, which included either poppies or its juice (opium), clover fodder (Curcuma epithymum) or both. For an eye-remedy, he advised myrrh, saffron, and frankincense, 2 drams each, to be mixed with 1 dram of yellow arsenic formed into tablets. Each tablet was to be dissolved in a sufficient quantity of coriander water and used as eye drops.
- Doubts About Galen (Shukuk 'ala alinusor) ::Rhazes's independent mind is strikingly revealed in this book and G. Stolyarov II quotes: :::"In the manner of numerous Greek thinkers, including Socrates and Aristotle, Rhazes rejected the mind-body dichotomy and pioneered the concept of mental health and self-esteem as being essential to a patient's welfare. This "sound mind, healthy body" connection prompted him to frequently communicate with his patients on a friendly level, encouraging them to heed his advice as a path to their recovery and bolstering their fortitude and determination to resist the illness and resulting in a speedy convalescence." ::In his book Doubts about Galen, Razi rejects several claims made by the Greek physician, as far as the alleged superiority of the Greek language and many of his cosmological and medical views. He links medicine with philosophy,and states that sound practice demands independent thinking. He reports that Galen's descriptions do not agree with his own clinical observations regarding the run of a fever. And in some cases he finds that his clinical experience exceeds Galen's. ::He criticized moreover Galen's theory that the body possessed four separate "humors" (liquid substances), whose balance are the key to health and a natural body-temperature. A sure way to upset such a system was to insert a liquid with a different temperature into the body resulting in an increase or decrease of bodily heat, which resembled the temperature of that particular fluid. Razi noted particularry that a warm drink would heat up the body to a degree much higher than its own natural temperature. Thus the drink would trigger a response from the body, rather than transferring only its own warmth or coldness to it. (Cf. I. E. Goodman) ::This line of criticism essentially had the potentiality to destroy completely Galen's Theory of Humours including Aristotele's theory of the Four Elements, on which it was grounded. Razi's own alchemical experiments suggested other qualities of matter, such as "oiliness" and "sulphurousness", or inflammability and salinity, which were not readily explained by the traditional fire, water, earth, and air division of elements. ::Razi's challenge to the current fundaments of medical theory were quite controversial. Many accused him of ignorance and arrogance, even though he repeatedly expressed his praise and gratitude to Galen for his commendable contributions and labors. saying: :::"I prayed to God to direct and lead me to the truth in writing this book. It grieves me to oppose and criticize the man Galen from whose sea of knowledge I have drawn much. Indeed, he is the Master and I am the disciple. Although this reverence and appreciation will and should not prevent me from doubting, as I did, what is erroneous in his theories. I imagine and feel deeply in my heart that Galen has chosen me to undertake this task, and if he were alive, he would have congratulated me on what I am doing. I say this because Galen's aim was to seek and find the truth and bring light out of darkness. I wish indeed he were alive to read what I have published." ::Then, Razi aiming to vindicate Galen's greatness and justifing his own criticism, lists four reasons why great men make more errors than lesser ones, due to: ::# Negligence, as a result of too much self-confidence. ::# Being unmindful (indifference) which often leads to errors. ::# Temptation to follow up on one's own thoughts or impetuosity, being convinced of that what one says or does is correct. ::# Crystallization of ancient knowledge, and the refusal to accept the fact that new data and ideas indicate that present day knowledge ultimately might surpass that of previous generations. ::Razi believed that contemporary scientists and scholars are by far better equipped, more knowledgeable, and more competent than the ancient ones, due to the accumulated knowledge at their disposal. Razi's attempt to overthrow blind acceptance of the unchallenged authority of ancient Sages, encouraged and stimulated research and advances in the arts, technology, and sciences.

Books on medicine

This is a partial list of Razi's books and articles in medicine, according to Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah. Some books may have been copied or printed under different names.
- al-Hawi, al-Hawi al-Kabir. Also known as The Virtuous Life, Continens Liber. The large medical Encyclopedia containing mostly recipes and Razi's notebooks.
- Isbateh Elmeh Pezeshki, An Introduction to Medical Science.
- Dar Amadi bar Elmeh Pezeshki
- Rade Manaategha 'tibb jahez
- Rade Naghzotibbeh Nashi
- The Experimentation of Medical Science and its Application
- Guidance
- Kenash
- The Classification of Diseases
- Royal Medicine
- For One Without a Doctor
- The Book of Simple Medicine
- The Great Book of Krabadin
- The Little Book of Krabadin
- The Book of Taj or The Book of the Crown
- The Book of Disasters
- Food and its Harmfulness
- al-Judari wa al-Hasbah, The Book of Smallpox and Measles
- Ketab dar Padid Amadaneh Sangrizeh (Stones in the Kidney and Bladder)
- Ketabeh Dardeh Roodeha
- Ketab dar Dard Paay va Dardeh Peyvandhayyeh Andam
- Ketab dar Falej
- The Book of Tooth Aches
- Dar Hey'ateh Kabed
- Dar Hey'ateh Ghalb (About Heart Ache)
- About the Nature of Doctors
- About the Earwhole
- Dar Rag Zadan
- Seydeh neh/sidneh
- Ketabeh Ibdal
- Food For Patients
- Soodhayeh Serkangabin
- Darmanhayeh Abneh
- The Book of Surgical Instruments
- The Book on Oil
- Fruits Before and After Lunch
- Book on Medical Discussion (with Jarir Tabib)
- Book on Medical Discussion II (with Abu Feiz)
- About the Menstrual Cycle
- Ghi Kardan
- Snow and Medicine
- Snow and Thirst
- The Foot
- Fatal Diseases
- About Poisoning
- Hunger
- Soil in Medicine
- The Thirst of Fish
- Sleep Sweating
- Warmth in Clothing
- Spring and Disease
- Misconceptions of a Doctors Capabilities
- The Social Role of Doctors

Translations

Razi's notable books and articles on medicine (in English) include:
- Mofid al Khavas, The Book for the Elite.
- The Book of Experiences
- The Cause of the Death of Most Animals because of Poisonous Winds
- The Physicians' Experiments
- The Person Who Has No Access to Physicians
- The Big Pharmacology
- The Small Pharmacology
- Gout
- Al Shakook ala Jalinoos, The Doubt on Galen
- Kidney and Bladder Stones
- Ketab tibb ar-Ruhani,The Spiritual Physik of Rhazes.

Alchemy

The Transmutation of Metals

Razi's interest in alchemy and his strong belief in the possibility of transmutation of lesser metals to silver and gold was attested half a century after his death by Ibn an-Nadim's book (The Philosophers Stone-Lapis Philosophorum in Latin). Nadim attributed a series of twelve books to al-Razi, plus an additional seven, including his refutation to al-Kindi's denial of the validity of alchemy. Al-Kindi (801-873 BCE) had been appointed by the Abbasid Caliph Ma'mum founder of Baghdad, to 'the House of Wisdom' in that city, he was a philosopher and an opponent of alchemy.
Finally we will mention Razi's two best-known alchemical texts, which largely superseded his earlier ones: al-Asrar ("The Secrets"), and Sirr al-Asrar ("The Secret of Secrets"), which incorporates much of the previous work. Apparently Razi's contemporaries believed that he had obtained the secret of turning iron and copper into gold. Biographer Khosro Moetazed reports in Mohammad Zakaria Razi that a certain General Simjur confronted Razi in public, and asked whether that was the underlying reason for his willingness to treat patients without a fee. "It appeared to those present that Razi was reluctant to answer; he looked sideways at the general and replied": :"I understand alchemy and I have been working on the characteristic properties of metals for an extended time. However, it still has not turned out to be evident to me, how one can transmute gold from copper. Despite the research from the ancient scientists done over the past centuries, there has been no answer. I very much doubt if it is possible..."

Chemical instruments and substances

Razi developed several chemical instruments that remain in use to this day. He is known to have perfected methods of distillation and extraction, which have led to his discovery of sulfuric acid (by dry distillation of vitriol, (al-zajat) and alcohol. These discoveries paved the way for other Islamic alchemists, such as the discovery of various other mineral acids by Jabir Ibn Hayyam (known as Geber in Europe).

Hermeticism

Alchemy's source can be traced to the Hermetica, writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus, Hermes Thrice-Great who is identified with the Egyptian god Thoth, inventor of alchemy and god of Wisdom. It was in ancient Egypt that the Hermetica emerged and reached the state now visible in various treatises of Arabian alchemists and philosophers. Hermeticism encompasses the Art of alchemy (both 'technical' and 'philosophical' alchemy) as well as astrology and talismanic magic. As in so may other respects, Moslems and other non-Europeans of late antiquity and the early middle ages outdid their Western contemporaries in preserving and extending the Hermetic tradition. Alchemical works began to enter Islamic lands from Alexandria as early as the 7th century, even prior to Jabir al-Hayan (known as Geberu). Many Arabian alchemists emerged since and most of them were physicians, just as al-Razi. Their alchemistical experiments lead to the discovery of many medicinal and chemical inventions which laid the foundation for future developments in both sciences. Razi's alchemy, as well as his medical thinking struggled within the cocoon of hylomorphism. It dismisses the idea of potions and dispenses with an appeal to magic, magic meaning the reliance on symbols as causes. Although Razi does not reject the idea that miracles exist, in the sense of unexplained phenomena in nature, his alchemical stockroom was enriched with products of Persian mining and manufacturing, even with sal ammoniac a Chinese discovery. He relied predominantly on the concept of 'dominant' forms or essences, which is the Neoplatonic conception of causality rather than an intellectual approach or a mechanical one. Razi's alchemy brings forward such empiric qualities as salinity and inflammability -the latter associated to 'oiliness' and 'sulphurousness'. These properties are not readily explained by the traditional composition of the elements such as : fire, water, earth and air, as al-óhazali and others after him were quick to note, influenced by critical thoughts such as Razi had.

Major works on alchemy

al-Razi's achievements are of exceptional importance in the history of chemistry, since in his books we find for the first time a systematic classification of carefully observed and verified facts regarding chemical substances, reactions and apparatus, described in a language almost entirely free from mysticism and ambiguity. Razi's scheme of classification of the substances used in chemistry shows sound research on his part.
- The Secret (Al-Asrar) ::This book was written in response to a request from Razi's close friend, colleague, and former student, Abu Mohammed b. Yunis of Bukhara, a Muslim mathematician, philosopher, a highly reputable natural scientist.
In his book Sirr al-Asrar, Razi divides the subject of "Matter' into three categories as he did in his previous book al-Asrar. ::# Knowledge and identification of drug components of plant-, animal- and mineral-origin and the description of the best type of each for utilization in treatment. ::# Knowledge of equipment and tools of interest to and used by either alchemist or apothecary. ::# Knowledge of seven alchemical procedures and techniques: sublimation and condensation of mercury, precipitation of sulfur and arsenic calcination of minerals (gold, silver, copper, lead, and iron), salts, glass, talc, shells, and waxing. ::This last category contains additionally a description of other methods and applications used in transmutation:

- The added mixture and use of solvent vehicles.

- The amount of heat (fire) used, 'bodies and stones', ('al-ajsad' and 'al-ahjar) that can or cannot be transmuted into corporal substances such of metals and Id salts ('al-amlah').

- The use of a liquid mordant which quickly and permanently colors lesser metals for more lucrative sale and profit. ::Similar to the commentary on the 8th century text on amalgams ascribed to Al- Hayan (Jabir), Razi gives methods and procedures of coloring a silver object to imitate gold (gold leafing) and the reverse technique of removing its color back to silver. Gilding and silvering of other metals (alum, calcium salts, iron, copper, and tutty) are also described, as well as how colors will last for years without tarnishing or changing. Behind these procedures one does not find a deceptive motive rather a technical and economic deliberation. This becomes evident from the author's quotation of market prices and the expressed triumph of artisan, craftsman or alchemist declaring the results of their efforts "to make it look exactly like gold!". However, another motive was involved, namely, to manufacture something resembling gold to be sold quickly so to help a good friend who happened to be in need of money fast. Could it be Razi's alchemical technique of silvering and gilding metals which convinced many Muslim biographers that he was first a jeweler before he turned to the study of alchemy? ::Of great interest in the text is Razi's classification of minerals into six divisions, showing his discussion a modern chemical connotation: ::# Four SPIRITS (AL-ARWAH) : mercury, sal ammoniac, sulfur, and arsenic sulphate (orpiment and realgar). ::# Seven BODIES (AL-AJSAD) : silver, gold, copper, iron, black lead (plumbago), zinc (Kharsind), and tin. ::# Thirteen STONES : (AL-AHJAR) Pyrites marcasite (marqashita), magnesia, malachite, tutty Zinc oxide (tutiya), talcum, lapis lazuli, gypsum, azurite, magnesia , haematite (iron oxide), arsenic oxide, mica and asbestos and glass (then identified as made of sand and alkali of which the transparent crystal Damascene is considered the best), ::# Seven VIRIOLS (AL-ZAJAT) : alum (ak-shubub), and white (qalqadzs), black , red, and yellow (qulqutar) vitriols (the impure sulfates of iron, copper, etc.), green (qalqand). ::# Seven BORATES : tinkar, natron, and impure sodium borate. ::# Eleven SALTS (AL-AMLAH): including brine, common (table) salt, ashes, naphtha, live lime, and urine, rock, and sea salts. Then he separately defines and describes each of these substances and their top choice, best colors and various adulterations. :: Razi gives also a list of apparatus used in alchemy This consists of 2 classes: ::# Instruments used for the dissolving and melting of metals such as the Blacksmith's hearth, bellows, crucible, thongs (tongue or ladle), macerator, stirring rod, cutter, grinder (pesstle), file, shears, descensory and semi-cylindrical iron mould. ::# Utensils used to carry out the proces of transmutation and various parts of the distilling apparatus: the retort, alembic, shallow iron pan, potters kiln and blowers,large oven, cylindrical stove, glass cups, flasks, phials, beakers, glass funnel,crucible, alundel, heating lamps, mortar, cauldron, hair-cloth, sand- and water-bath, sieve, flat stone mortar and chafing-dish.
- Secret of Secrets (Sirr Al-asrar) ::This is Razi's most famous book which has gained a lot of recognition in the West. Here he gives systematic attention to basic chemical operations important to the history of pharmacy.

Books on alchemy

Here is a list of Razi's known books on alchemy, mostly in Persian:
- Modkhele Taalimi
- Elaleh Ma'aaden
- Isbaate Sanaa'at
- Ketabeh Sang
- Ketabe Tadbir
- Ketabe Aksir
- Ketabe Sharafe Sanaa'at
- Ketabe Tartib, Ketabe Rahat, The Simple Book
- Ketabe Tadabir
- Ketabe Shavahed
- Ketabe Azmayeshe Zar va Sim (Experimentation on Gold)
- Ketabe Serre Hakimaan
- Ketabe Serr (The Book of Secrets)
- Ketabe Serre Serr (The Secret of Secrets)
- The First Book on Experiments
- The Second Book on Experiments
- Resaale'ei Be Faan
- Arezooyeh Arezookhah
- A letter to Vazir Ghasem ben Abidellah
- Ketabe Tabvib

Philosophy

On existence

Razi believed that a competent physician must also be a philosopher well versed in the fundamental questions regarding existence: :"He proclaimed the absolutism of Euclidean space and mechanical time as the natural foundation of the world in which men lived, but resolved the dilemma of existent infinities by synthesizing this outlook with the atomic theory of Democritus, which recognized that matter existed in the form of indivisible and fathomable quanta. The continuity of space, however, holds due to the existence of void, or a region lacking matter... This is remarkably close to the systems yielded by the discoveries of such later European scientists as John Dalton and Max Planck, as well as the observational and theoretical works of modern astronomer Halton Arp and Objectivist philosopher Michael Miller. Progress, in the view of all these men, is not to be obstructed by a jumble of haphazard and contradictory relativistic assertions which result in metaphysical hodge-podge instead of a sturdy intellectual base. Even in regard to the task of the philosopher, Rhazes considered it to be progressing beyond the level of one's teachers, expanding the accuracy and scope of one's doctrine, and individually elevating oneself onto a higher intellectual plane." (G. Stolyarov II) Razi is known to have been a free-thinking Islamic philosopher, since he was well-trained in ancient Greek sciences although his approach to chemistry was rather naturalistic.Moreover he was well versed in the theory of music, as so many other Islamic scientists of that time.

Metaphysics

His ideas on metaphysics were also based on the works of the great Greeks: :"The metaphysical doctrine of al-Razi, insofar as it can be reconstructed, derives from his concept of the five eternal principles. God, for him, does not 'create' the world from nothing but rather arranges a universe out of pre-existing principles. His account of the soul features a mythic origin of the world in which God out of pity fashions a physical playground for the soul in response to its own desires; the soul, once fallen into the new realm God has made for it, requires God's further gift of intellect in order to find its way once more to salvation and freedom. In this scheme, intellect does not appear as a separate principle but is rather a later grace of God to the soul; the soul becomes intelligent, possessed of reason and therefore able to discern the relative value of the other four principles. Whereas the five principles are eternal, intellect as such is apparently not. Such a doctrine of intellect is sharply at odds with that of all of Razi's philosophical contemporaries, who are in general either adherents of some form of Neoplatonism or of Aristotelianism. The remaining three principles, space, matter and time, serve as the non-animate components of the natural world. Space is defined by the relationship between the individual particles of matter, or atoms, and the void that surrounds them. The greater the density of material atoms, the heavier and more solid the resulting object; conversely, the larger the portion of void, the lighter and less solid. Time and matter have both an absolute, unqualified form and a limited form. Thus there is an absolute matter - pure extent - that does not depend in any way on place, just as there is a time, in this sense, that is not defined or limited by motion. The absolute time of al-Razi is, like matter, infinite; it thus transcends the time which Aristotle confined to the measurement of motion. Razi, in the cases of both time and matter, knew well how he differed from Aristotle and also fully accepted and intended the consequences inherent in his anti-Peripatetic positions." (Paul E. Walker) It is quite evident that most of his thoughts were derived from the Islam, which is demonstrated clearly in his book: The Metaphysics.

Excerpt from The Philosophical Approach

:"(...) In short, while I am writing the present book, I have written so far around 200 books and articles on different aspects of science, philosophy, theology, and hekmat (wisdom). (...) I never entered the service of any king as a military man or a man of office, and if I ever did have a conversation with a king, it never went beyond my medical responsibility and advice. (...) Those who have seen me know, that I did not into excess with eating, drinking or acting the wrong way. As to my interest in science, people know perfectly well and must have witnessed how I have devoted all my life to science since my youth. My patience and diligence in the pursuit of science has been such that on one special issue specifically I have written 20,000 pages (in small print), moreover I spent fifteen years of my life -night and day- writing the big collection entitled Al Hawi. It was during this time that I lost my eyesight, my hand became paralyzed, with the result that I am now deprived of reading and writing. Nonetheless, I've never given up, but kept on reading and writing with the help of others. I could make concessions with my opponents and admit some shortcomings, but I am most curious what they have to say about my scientific achievement. If they consider my approach incorrect, they could present their views and state their points clearly, so that I may study them, and if I determined their views to be right, I would admit it. However, if I disagreed, I would discuss the matter to prove my standpoint. If this is not the case, and they merely disagree with my approach and way of life, I would appreciate they only use my written knowledge and stop interferring with my behaviour." :"In the "Philosophical Biography", as seen above, he defended his personal and philosophical life style. In this work he laid out a framework based on the idea that there is life after death full of happiness, not suffering. Rather than being self-indulgent, man should persue knowledge, utilise his intellect and apply justice in his life.
According to Al-Razi: "This is what our merciful Creator wants. The One to whom we pray for reward and whose punishment we fear."
In brief, man should be kind, gentle and just. Al-Razi believed that there is a close relationship between spiritual integrity and physical health. He did not implicate that the soul could avoid distress due to his fear of death. He simply states that this psychological state cannot be avoided completely unless the individual is convinced that, after death, the soul will lead a better life. This requires a thorough study of esoteric doctrines and/or religions. He focuses on the opinion of some people who think that the soul perishes when the body dies. Death is inevitable, therefore one should not pre-occupy the mind with it, because any person who continuously thinks about death will become distressed and think as if he is dying when he continuously ponders on that subject. Therefore, he should forget about it in order to avoid upsetting himself. When contemplating his destiny after death, a benevolent and good man who acts according to the ordinances of the Islamic Shari`ah, has afterall nothing to fear because it indicates that he will have comfort and permanent bliss in the Hereafter. The one who doubts the Shari`ah, may contemplate it, and if he dilligently does this, he will not deviate from the right path. If he falls short, Allah will excuse him and forgive his sins because it is not demanded of him to do something which he cannot achieve." (Dr. Muhammad Abdul-Hadi Abu Reidah)

Books on philosophy

This is a partial list of Razi's books on philosophy. Some books may have been copied or published under different titles.
- The Small Book on Theism
- Response to Abu'al'Qasem Braw
- The Greater Book on Theism
- Modern Philosophy
- Dar Roshan Sakhtane Eshtebaah
- Dar Enteghaade Mo'tazlian
- Delsoozi Bar Motekaleman
- Meydaneh Kherad
- Khasel
- Resaaleyeh Rahnamayeh Fehrest
- Ghasideyeh Ilaahi
- Dar Alet Afarineshe Darandegan
- Shakkook
- Naghseh Ketabe Tadbir
- Naghsnamehyeh Ferforius
- Do name be Hasanebne Moharebe Ghomi Notable books in English are:

- Spiritual Medicine
- The Philosophical Approach (Al Syrat al Falsafiah)
- The Metaphysics

Quotes from Rhazes

: Let your first thought be to strengthen your natural vitality. : Truth in medicine is an unattainable goal, and the art as described in books is far beneath the knowledge of an experienced and thoughtful physician. Asked if a philosopher can follow a prophetically revealed religion, al-Razi frankly replies: : How can anyone think philosophically while listening to old wives' tales founded on contradictions, which obdurate ignorance, and dogmatism? : Gentility of character, friendliness and purity of mind, are found in those who are capable of thinking profoundly on abstruse matters and scientific minutiae. : Man should hasten to protect himself from love before succumbing to it and cleanse his soul from it when he falls. : The self-admirer, generally, should not glorify himself nor be so conceited that he elevates himself above his counterparts. Neither should he belittle himself to such an extent that he becomes inferior to his own peers or to those who are inferior both to him and to his fellowmen in the eyes of others. If he follows this advice, he will be freed from self-admiration and feelings of inferiority, and people will call him one who truly knows himself. When questioned on the subject of 'envy', Razi answers: : It results from an accumulation of stinginess and avarice in the soul, being one of the diseases that cause serious harm to the soul.

Quotes on Rhazes

:"Rhazes was the greatest physician of Islam and the Medieval Ages." – George Sarton :"Rhazes remained up to the 17th century the indisputable authority of medicine." – The Islamic Encyclopaedia :"His writings on smallpox and measles show originality and accuracy, and his essay on infectious diseases was the first scientific treatise on the subject." – The Bulletin of the World Health Organization (May 1970) :"In today's world we tend to see scientific advance as the product of great movements, massive grant-funded projects, and larger-than-life socio-economic forces. It is easy to forget, therefore, that many contributions stemmed from the individual efforts of scholars like Rhazes. Indeed, pharmacy can trace much of its historical foundations to the singular achievements of this ninth-century Persian scholar." — Michael E. Flannery See also: List of Persian scientists

References and further reading

- M. M. SHARIF , A History of Muslim Philosophy
- Paul Kraus, Opera Philosophica:
- I recommend all to refer to this book: It is the only edition of al-Razi's philosophical books and fragments still extant, Paul Kraus work: Abi Bakr Mohammadi Filii Zachariae Raghensis or Opera Philosophica, fragmentaque quae superssunt. Collegit et edidit Paulus Kraus.Pars Prior. Cahirae MCMXXXIX. Only the first volume was published since P. Kraus' suicide prevented the publiction of the second volume for which he already had gathered a great amount of material. This material was transferred, after his death, to the Institut Francais d'Archeologie Orientale, in Cairo, it still remains to be published.
- Walker, P. "The Political Implications of al-Razi's Philosophy", in C. Butterworth (ed.) The Political Aspects of Islamic Philosophy, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 61-94.(1992)
- Motazed, K. Mohammad Zakaria Razi
- Stolyarov II, H. "Rhazes: The Thinking Western Physician", in: The Rational Argumentator, Issue VI.(2002) [http://www.geocities.com/rationalargumentator/index6.html]
BIBLIOGRAPHY A. Ancient Sources Ibn al-Nadim, Fihrist, (ed. Flugel), pp. 299 et sqq.
Sa'id al-Andalusi, Tabaqat al-Umam, p. 33.
ibn Juljul, Tabaqat al-Atibba w-al-Hukama, (ed. Fu'ad Sayyid), Cairo,1355/1936, pp. 77-78.
al-Biruni, Epitre de Beruni, contenant le repertoire des ouvres de Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi, publiee par P. Kraus, Paris, 1936.
al-Baihaqi, Tatimmah Siwan al-Hikma, (ed. M. Ghafi), Lahore, 1351/1932
al-Qifti,Tarikh al-Hukama, (ed. Lippert), pp. 27-177.
ibn abi Usaibi'ah,Uyun al-Anba fi Tabaqat al-Atibba, Vol. I, pp. 309-21.
abu al-Faraj ibn al-'Ibri (Bar-Hebraeus),Mukhtasar Tarikh al-Duwal, (ed. A. Salhani), p. 291.
Ibn Khallikan, Wafayat al-A'yan,(ed. Muhyi al-Din 'Abd al-Hamid), Cairo, 1948, No. 678, pp. 244-47.
al-Safadi, Nakt al-Himyan, pp. 249-50.
Ibn al-'Imad, Shadharat al-Dhahab, Vol. II, p. 263.
al-'Umari, Masalik al-Absar, Vol. V, Part 2, ff. 301-03 (photostat copy in Dar al-Kutub al-Misriyyah). B. Modern Studies G..S. A. Ranking, The Life and Works of Rhazes, in Proceedings of the Seventeenth International Congress of Medicine, London, 1913, pp. 237-68.
J. Ruska, Al-Biruni als Quelle fur das Leben und die Schriften al-Razi's, Isis, Vol. V, 1924, pp. 26-50.
Al-Razi als Bahnbrecher einer neuer Chemie, Deutsche Literaturzeitung, 1923, pp. 118-24.
Die Alchemie al-Razi's der Islam, Vol. XXII,pp. 283-319.
Uber den gegenwartigen Stand der Razi-Forschung, Archivio di stori della scienza, 1924, Vol. V, pp. 335-47
H. H. Shader, ZDMG, 79, pp. 228-35 (see translation into Arabic by Abdurrahman Badawi in al-Insan al-Kamil,Islamica, Vol. XI, Cairo, 1950, pp. 37-44).
E. O. von Lippmann, Entstehung und Ausbreitung der Alchemie, Vol. II, p. 181.
S. Pines, Die Atomenlehre ar-Razi's in Beitrage zur islamischen Atomenlehre, Berlin, 1936, pp. 34-93.
Dr. Mahmud al-Najmabadi, Shah Hal Muhammad ibn Zakariya, (1318/1900) Encyclopaedie des Islams, s. v. (by Ruska).
Gamil Bek, Uqud al-Jauliar, Vol. I, pp. 118-27.
Izmirli Haqqi, Ilahiyat, Fak. Macm., Vol. I, p. 151; Vol. II, p. 36, Vol. III, pp. 177 et seq.
Abdurrahman Badawi, Min Tarlkh al-Ilhad fi al-Islam Islamica, Vol. II,Cairo, 1945, pp. 198-228.
Hirschberg,Geschichte der Augenheilkunde, p. 101.
E. G.Browne, Arabian Medicine, Cambridge, 1921, pp. 44-53.
M. Meyerhof, Legacy of Islam, pp. 323 et seq.
F. Wustenfeld, Geschichte der Arabischen Arzte und Naturforscher, ftn. 98.
L. Leelerc, Histoire de la medicine arabe, Paris, 1876, Vol. I, pp. 337-54.
H. P. J. Renaud, A propos du millenaire de Razes, in bulletin de la Societe Irancaise d'Histoire de la medicine, Mars-avril, 1931, pp. 203 et seq.
A. Eisen, Kimiya al-Razi, RAAD, DIB, 62/4.
Aldo Mieli, La science arabe, Leiden, 1938, pp. 8, 16. Nasr, Science and Civilization in Islam, see. Razes: The Secret of Secrets, p.273, also pp.197-200, and Anawati: L'Alchemie arabe in Rased.
A.J. Arberry (transl.), The spiritual Physik of Rhazes (London, John Murray 1950). C. Editions of Philosophical Works. See Brockelmann for the manuscript of al-Razi's extant books in general, see Brockelmann,GAL, I, pp. 268-71 (second edition), Suppl., Vol. I, pp. 418-21. Cf. Paul Kraus: Abi Bakr Mohammadi Filii Zachariae Raghensis, Opera Philosophica, fragmentaque quae superssunt. Collegit et edidit Paulus Kraus. Pars Prior. Cahirae MCMXXXIX.

External links

- http://www.islamset.com/heritage/pharmacy/4th&10th.html
- http://www.islamset.com/heritage/pharmacy/alchemy.html
- http://www.levity.com/alchemy/islam15.html
- http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ei/razi.htm
- http://www.payvand.com/news/02/aug/1087.html
- http://umcc.ais.org/~maftab/ip/hmp/XII-TwentyTwo.pdf
- http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/hmp/default.htm Category:Muslims Category:Sunni Muslims Category:Muslim scholars Category:Sunni Muslim scholars Category:Islamic scholars Category:Muslim Islamic scholars Category:Sunni Muslim Islamic scholars Razi Razi Razi Razi Razi Razi Razi Razi Razi Razi ms:Abu Bakar Muhammad bin Zakaria al-Razi

Smallpox

Smallpox (also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera) is a highly contagious disease unique to humans. It is caused by two virus variants called Variola major and Variola minor. V. major is the more deadly form, with a typical mortality of 20-40 percent of those infected. The other type, V. minor, only kills 1% of its victims. Many survivors are left blind in one or both eyes from corneal ulcerations, and persistent skin scarring - pockmarks - is nearly universal. Smallpox was responsible for an estimated 300-500 million deaths in the 20th century. As recently as 1967, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that 15 million people contracted the disease and that two million died in that year. After successful vaccination campaigns, the WHO in 1979 declared the eradication of smallpox, though cultures of the virus are kept by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in the United States and at the Institute of Virus Preparations in Siberia, Russia. Smallpox vaccination was discontinued in most countries in the 1970s as the risks of vaccination include death (~1 per million), among other serious side effects. Nonetheless, after the 2001 anthrax attacks took place in the United States, concerns about smallpox have resurfaced as a possible agent for bioterrorism. As a result, there has been increased concern about the availability of vaccine stocks. Moreover, President George W. Bush has ordered all American military personnel to be vaccinated against smallpox and has implemented a voluntary program for vaccinating emergency medical personnel. Famous victims of this disease include Ramesses V (see Koplow, p. 11, plus notes), Shunzhi Emperor of China (official history), Mary II of England, Louis XV of France, and Peter II of Russia. Henry VIII's fourth wife, Anne of Cleves, survived the disease but was scarred by it, as was Henry VIII's daughter, Elizabeth I of England in 1562, and Abraham Lincoln in 1863. Joseph Stalin, who was badly scarred by the disease early in life, would often have photographs retouched to make his pockmarks less apparent. Joseph Stalin After first contacts with Europeans and Africans, the death of a large part of the native population of the New World was caused by Old World diseases. Smallpox was the chief culprit. On at least one occasion, germ warfare was attempted by the British Army under Jeffrey Amherst when two smallpox-infected blankets were deliberately given to representatives of the besieging Delaware Indians during Pontiac's Rebellion in 1763. That Amherst intended to spread the disease to the natives is not doubted by historians; whether or not the attempt succeeded is a matter of debate.^[details] Smallpox is described in the Ayurveda books. Treatment included inoculation with year-old smallpox matter. The inoculators would travel all across India pricking the skin of the arm with a small metal instrument using "variolous matter" taken from pustules produced by the previous year's inoculations. The effectiveness of this system was confirmed by the British doctor J.Z. Holwell in an account to the College of Physicians in London in 1767. Edward Jenner developed a smallpox vaccine by using cowpox fluid (hence the name vaccination, from the Latin vacca, cow); his first inoculation occurred on May 14, 1796. After independent confirmation, this practice of vaccination against smallpox spread quickly in Europe. The first smallpox vaccination in North America occurred on June 2, 1800. National laws requiring vaccination began appearing as early as 1805. The last case of wild smallpox occurred on October 26th, 1977. One last victim was claimed by the disease in the UK in September 1978, when Janet Parker, a photographer in the University of Birmingham Medical School, contracted the disease and died. A research project on smallpox was being conducted in the building at the time, though the exact route by which Ms. Parker became infected was never fully elucidated.

Infection

Transmission is by prolonged face-to-face contact, direct contact with infected body fluids or contaminated objects, and rarely, by a virus in the air of enclosed spaces. Infection in the natural disease will be via the lungs. The incubation period to obvious disease is around 12 days. In the initial growth phase the virus seems to move from cell to cell, but around the 12th day, lysis of many infected cells occurs and the virus will be found in the bloodstream in large numbers. The initial or prodromal symptoms are essentially similar to other viral diseases such as influenza and the common cold - fevers, muscle pain and stomach aches etc. The digestive tract is commonly involved, leading to vomiting. Most cases will be prostrated. Smallpox virus preferentially attacks skin cells and by days 14-15, smallpox infection becomes obvious. The attack on skin cells causes the characteristic pimples associated with the disease. The pimples tend to erupt first in the mouth, then the arms and the hands, and later the rest of the body. At that point the pimples, called macules, should still be fairly small. This is the stage at which the victim is most contagious. By days 15-16 the condition worsens - at this point the disease can take two vastly different courses. The first form is of classical ordinary smallpox, in which the pimples grow into papules, and then fill up with pus (turning them into pustules). Ordinary smallpox generally takes one of two basic courses. In discrete ordinary smallpox, the pustules stand out on the skin separately - there is a greater chance of surviving this form. In confluent ordinary smallpox, the blisters merge together into sheets which begin to detach the outer layers of skin from the underlying flesh - this form is usually fatal. If a victim of ordinary smallpox survives for the course of the disease, the pustules will deflate in time (the duration is variable), and will start to dry up, usually beginning on day 28. Eventually the pustules will completely dry and start to flake off. Once all of the pustules flake off, the patient is considered cured. In the other form of Variola major smallpox, known as hemorrhagic smallpox, a mortality of 96 percent has been reported . An entirely different set of symptoms starts to develop. The skin does not blister, but remains smooth. Instead, bleeding will occur under the skin, making the skin look charred and black (this is known as black pox). The eyes will also haemorrhage, making the whites of the eyes turn deep red (and, if the victim lives long enough, eventually black). At the same time, bleeding begins in the organs. Death may occur from bleeding (fatal loss of blood or by other causes such as brain haemorrhage), or from loss of fluid. The entry of other infectious organisms, since the skin and intestine are no longer a barrier, can also lead to multi-organ failure. This form of smallpox occurs in anywhere from 3-25% of fatal cases (depending on the virulence of the smallpox strain).

History

Eurasia

Several historical plagues are believed by some historians to have been early outbreaks of smallpox. But contemporary records are not detailed enough to make a definite diagnosis at this distance. Other historians suggest bubonic plague, measles or other epidemic diseases may have been responsible. The Plague of Athens decimated the city of Athens in 430 BCE, killing around a third of the population, according to Thucydides. Historians have long considered this an example of bubonic plague, but more recent examination of the reported symptoms led some scholars to believe this disease could have been measles, smallpox or typhus. The Antonine Plague that swept through the Roman Empire and Italy in 165–180 is also thought to be either smallpox or measles. A second major outbreak of disease in the Empire, known as the Plague of Cyprian (251–266), was also either smallpox or measles. The next major epidemic believed to be smallpox occurred in India. The exact date is unknown. Around 400, an Indian medical book recorded a disease marked by pustules, saying "the pustules are red, yellow, and white and they are accompanied by burning pain … the skin seems studded with grains of rice." The Indian epidemic was thought to be punishment from a god, and the survivors created a goddess to honor the disease. In Hinduism the goddess Sitala both causes and cures high fever, rashes, hot flashes and pustules. All of these are symptoms of smallpox. Smallpox did not enter Europe until about 581. Most of the details about the epidemic that followed are lost, probably due to the scarcity of surviving written records of early medieval society.

The Americas

In 1519 Hernán Cortés landed on the shores of what is now Mexico and was then the Aztec empire. In 1520, another group of Spanish came from Cuba and landed in Mexico. Among them was an African slave who had smallpox. When Cortés heard about the other group, he went and defeated them. In this contact, one of Cortés's men contracted the disease. When Cortés returned to Tenochtitlan, he brought the disease with him. Soon, the Aztecs rose up in rebellion against Cortés. Outnumbered, the Spanish were forced to flee. In the fighting, the Spanish soldier carrying smallpox died. After the battle, the Aztecs evidently looked on the invaders' bodies for riches and contracted the virus. Cortes would not return to the capital until August 1521. In the meantime smallpox was devastating the Aztec population. It killed most of the Aztec army, the emperor, and 25% of the overall population. A Spanish priest left this description: "As the Indians did not know the remedy of the disease...they died in heaps, like bedbugs. In many places it happened that everyone in a house died and, as it was impossible to bury the great number of dead, they pulled down the houses over them so that their homes become their tombs." On Cortés's return, he found the Aztec army's chain of command in ruins. The soldiers who lived were still weak from the disease. Cortés then easily defeated the Aztecs and entered Tenochtitlán, where he found that smallpox had killed more Aztecs than had the cannons. The Aztecs said that they could not walk through the streets without stepping on the bodies of smallpox victims. The effects of smallpox on Tahuantinsuyu (or Inca empire) were even more devastating. Beginning in Colombia, smallpox spread rapidly before the Spanish invaders first arrived in the empire. The spread was probably aided by the efficient Inca road system. Within months, the disease had killed the Sapa Inca Huayna Capac, his successor, and most of the other leaders. Two of his surviving sons warred for power and, after a bloody and costly war, Atahualpa become the new Sapa Inca. As Atahualpa was returning to the capital Cuzco, Francisco Pizarro arrived and through a series of deceits captured the young leader and his best general. Within a few years smallpox claimed between 60% and 90% of the Inca population, with other waves of European disease weakening them further. Even after the two mighty empires of the Americas were defeated by the virus, smallpox continued its march of death. North America was next. In 1633 in Plymouth, Massachusetts, the Native Americans were struck by the virus. As it had done elsewhere, the virus wiped out entire population groups of Native Americans. It reached Lake Ontario in 1636, and the lands of the Iroquois by 1679, killing millions. The worst sequence of smallpox attacks took place in Boston, Massachusetts. From 1636 to 1698, Boston endured six epidemics. In 1721 the most severe epidemic occurred. The entire population fled the city, bringing the virus to the rest of the 13 colonies. In the late 1770s, during the American Revolutionary War, smallpox returned once more and killed an estimated 125,000 people. :See: Population history of American indigenous peoples for a discussion of this disease and other issues at the time of European contact.

Inoculation

By that time, a preventive treatment for smallpox had finally arrived. It was a process called inoculation, also known as insufflation or variolation. Inoculation was not a sudden innovation, as some practices had been around for centuries. The Chinese blew powdered smallpox scabs up the noses of the healthy. The patients would then develop a mild case of the disease and from then on were immune to it. The process spread to Turkey, where an American doctor learned of it. He then told the Royal Society in England, where Lady Mary Wortley Montagu learned of it. She began to get other people interested in inoculation. When no one listened, she tried it on her son and daughter, aged 5 and 4 respectively. They both recovered quickly and the procedure was hailed as a success. In 1721, an epidemic of smallpox hit London and left the British Royal Family in fear. When they read about the success of Lady Wortley Montagu's efforts, they wanted to use inoculation on themselves. Doctors told them that it was a dangerous procedure, so they decided to try it on other people first. The subjects they used were condemned prisoners. The doctors inoculated the prisoners and all of them recovered in a couple of weeks. So assured, the British royal family inoculated themselves and reassured the English people that it was safe. But inoculation still had its critics. Prominent among them were religious preachers who claimed that smallpox was God's way of punishing people and that inoculation was a tool of Satan. This resistance only encouraged Montagu and the others to work even harder. By 1723 inoculations were extremely common in England. In 1721, Onesimus (Oh-NES-ih-mus) was the slave of a Boston preacher when smallpox came to Boston via a ship arriving from Barbados. His owner, Cotton Mather asked his slave if he ever had smallpox. Onesimus said, "Yes and no," and explained a technique from his homeland in Africa, thought to be in Sudan. He explained that pus from an infected person was deliberately rubbed into a scratch or cut of a non-infected person, and when successful, the person had immunity. This remedy from an African-American slave was the precursor to inoculations. Cotton Mather, the son of a former Harvard University dean, was waging a campaign of his own to promote the process, although religious resistance to inoculation was very strong. At one point, Cotton Mather was in danger from a crowd that wanted to hang him. After six patients died from the procedure, he was called a murderer. But, when the population of Boston returned after the end of a smallpox epidemic in 1722, he was an instant hero. Out of the population of Boston, 7% had died from smallpox. Out of the 300 people that chose to inoculate themselves, only 2% died. By 1774, it was considered odd not to choose inoculation. Onesimus was later freed by Mather, not for his knowledge and help in combating smallpox, but because Mather considered him to be disobedient. Even though inoculation was a powerful method of controlling smallpox, it was far from perfect. Inoculation caused a mild case of smallpox which resulted in death in about 2% of the cases. It was also difficult to administer. Sick patients had to be locked away to prevent them from transmitting the disease to others. In 1757, a young boy in England by the name of Edward Jenner was inoculated. He suffered from the disease for an entire month. Even though he recovered, he was determined to find a better method of preventing smallpox.

Vaccination

At the age of thirteen, young Jenner was apprenticed to a doctor. He observed that people who caught cowpox while working with cows were known not to catch smallpox. He assumed a causal connection. The idea was not taken up by Dr. Ludlow at that time. After Jenner returned from medical school in London, a smallpox epidemic struck his home town of Berkeley, England. He advised the local cow workers to be inoculated. The farmers told him that cowpox prevented smallpox. This confirmed his childhood suspicion, and he studied cowpox further. In 1796 Sarah Nelmes, a local milkmaid, contracted cowpox and went to Jenner for treatment. Jenner took the opportunity to test his theory. He inoculated James Phipps, the eight year-old son of his gardener, not with smallpox but with cowpox. After an extremely weak bout of cowpox, James recovered. Jenner then tried to infect James with smallpox but nothing happened — the boy was immune to smallpox. Jenner reported his observations to the Royal Society. The initial reception was cool. Jenner repeated the process with five more children, one of them his son Edward. It worked on all of them. After this he was taken seriously, and by 1800 Jenner's work had been published in all of the major European languages. The process was performed all over Europe and the United States. The death rate was close to zero with the process, which became known as vaccination. The Balmis Expedition (1803) carried the vaccine to Spanish America, the Philippines and China under commission of the Spanish Crown. Some years before Dr. Jenner, Benjamin Jesty, a farmer from Yetminster in Dorset (he later moved to and is buried at Worth Matravers) is recorded as observing the two milkmaids living with his family to have been immune to smallpox and then inoculating his family with cowpox to protect them from smallpox. This has never been adequately verified, however, and the question of who first initiated smallpox inoculation/vaccination has not been settled to this day. Louis T. Wright, an African-American and Harvard medical school graduate in 1915, introduced intradermal vaccination for smallpox for the soldiers while serving in the Army during WWI.

Eradication

Jenner said, "The annihilation of smallpox - the dreadful scourge of the human race - will be the final result of vaccination." Jenner's dream was ultimately realized. Around the world, attempts would be made to annihilate smallpox. In 1842, England banned inoculation and ordered everyone to get vaccinated instead. In the United States, from 1843 to 1855, different states started requiring all students to be vaccinated. Not everyone liked this requirement, however. Many people said that the government was crossing a line by ordering people to get vaccinated. Despite the complaints, the war against smallpox went on and the disease was disappearing quickly in the wealthy countries. However, in poorer countries such as Somalia and India, vaccines were unaffordable and sometimes unknown. The final effort to attain the noble goal first set by Jenner would not begin until 1958, when the Soviet Union called for the eradication of smallpox from the planet. At that point, 2 million people were dying every year. In 1967, an international team of doctors was placed under the leadership of an American, Donald Henderson. For the eradication plan to work properly, the team needed to find cases of smallpox when they were erupting, so that they could vaccinate everyone who lived close by. This process is known as ring vaccination. The idea was cheaper and easier to implement than a process to vaccinate everyone who lived on the planet. The team ran into problems right away. They found that 95% of all smallpox victims do not report to the authorities. Instead of rushing to where smallpox was occurring, they were forced to deploy a network of experts around the world. When the disease emerged, local governments (whether they were willing or not) were rallied to vaccinate everyone in the area. However, smallpox fought tenaciously and did not give ground easily. In India and Bangladesh, religion and round-the-clock civil wars became huge obstacles. In fear of offending the goddess associated with the disease, many Hindus refused the vaccine. Undeterred, the team simply vaccinated them against their will. Civil war ended up being a bigger problem. The nature of war means that troops are often moved from place to place and lodge in crowded tents or barracks, an ideal condition for spreading smallpox. The soldiers then spread the disease to villagers, who then disperse it further. The team's answer to civil war was to vaccinate all the troops, with or without the permission of generals commanding the armies. The team placed themselves in great danger by doing this, and the WHO even told them to stop. Surprisingly, none of the team members were hurt in the process. Nature, unfortunately, also impeded the vaccination team's efforts. Just as the team was on the brink of success, the monsoon rains came, bursting dams and dikes. The rain and flooding forced people to flee, once again allowing smallpox to spread. This outbreak took the team a whole year to stop. The last major European outbreak of smallpox was the 1972 outbreak of smallpox in Yugoslavia. After a pilgrim returned from the Middle East, where he had contracted the virus, an epidemic infected 175 people with 35 deaths. Authorities declared martial law, enforced quarantine and undertook massive revaccination of the population, enlisting the help of the WHO and Donald Henderson. In two months, the outbreak was over. The last naturally occurring case of Variola Minor was diagnosed on October 26, 1977. The last naturally occurring case of the more deadly Variola Major was detected two years earlier in November 1975. It had cost a mere 300 million United States dollars to eradicate smallpox.

Post-eradication

In 1978, there was evidently an escape of smallpox from containment in a research laboratory in Birmingham, England. A medical photographer, Janet Parker, died from the disease itself, and the Professor responsible for the unit killed himself. In light of this accident, all known stocks of smallpox were destroyed, except the stocks at the United States Center for Disease Control (CDC) and the Vector Institute in Koltsovo, Novosibirsk in Siberia, where a regiment of troops guard it. Under such tight control, smallpox would, it was thought, never be let out again. Even though the destruction of virus stocks was ordered in 1993, 1994, 1995, and 1996, they have not yet been destroyed. There apparently remain a number of researchers who still wish to retain the stocks for scientific purposes. It is also feared that additional stocks of the virus may exist in research collections, the product of the accumulatory nature of microbiologists. Additional collections of the virus almost certainly exist as the result of certain military and biological warfare programs, such as the Soviet State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology (also known as Vector) labs, which maintained stocks separate from those held by the Moscow Institute for Viral Preparation. In March 2003 smallpox scabs were found tucked inside an envelope in a book on Civil War medicine in Santa Fe, New Mexico. The envelope was labeled as containing the scabs and listed the names of the patients that were vaccinated with them. Assuming the contents could be dangerous, the librarian who found them did not open the envelope. This was fortunate, as, unlike bacteria (with exception of those that produce spores), viruses can theoretically survive for many years. The scabs ended up with employees from the National Centers for Disease Control, who responded quickly once informed of the discovery. The discovery raised concerns that smallpox DNA could be extracted from these and other scabs and used for a biological attack. However, the chances of successfully doing that are very slim according to experts.

References

- Fenner, Frank, Henderson, D.A., Arita, Isao, Jezek, Zdenek, and Ladnyi, Ivan D. "Smallpox and Its Eradication." World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, Switzerland, 1988. ISBN 9241561106.
- Hopkins, Donald R. "Princes and Peasants: Smallpox in History." University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, 1983. ISBN 0226351777.
- Koplow, David. "Smallpox: The Fight to Eradicate a Global Scourge." University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA, 2003, ISBN 0-520-23732-3.
- McNeill, William H. "Plagues and Peoples." Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, Inc., New York, NY, 1976, ISBN 0-385-12122-9.
- Preston, Richard. "The Demon in the Freezer." Random House, New York, NY, 2002, ISBN 0-375-50856-2.
- [http://www.countway.harvard.edu/rarebooks/exhibits/waterhouse/ Catalog to the exhibit entitled "TO SLAY THE DEVOURING MONSTER: The Vaccination Experiments of Benjamin Waterhouse"] (2000). Hosted by the [http://www.countway.harvard.edu/rarebooks/exhibits.shtml Rare Books and Special Collections, Francis A. Countway Library of Medicine]. Verified availability 2005-03-12.

Numbered references

# Hogan, Christopher J & Harchelroad, Fred (2005). [http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic885.htm CBRNE - Smallpox] hosted on http://www.emedicine.com/. Availability verified 2005-12-09. # Fenn, Elizabeth Anne (2001). Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775-82 (1^st edition). Hill and Wang. ISBN 0809078201. # Willoughby, Brian (Feb 12, 2004). [http://www.tolerance.org/news/article_tol.jsp?id=942 BLACK HISTORY MONTH II: Why Wasn't I Taught That?]. Tolerance.org. Availability verified 2005-03-02. # [http://northbysouth.kenyon.edu/1998/health/wright.htm A Brief Biography of Dr. Louis T. Wright] hosted as part of [http://history.ulib.csuohio.edu/migration/ the Great Migration Project]. Availability verified 2005-03-03. # [http://www.cs.georgetown.edu/~blakeb/mm/BHM/Spotlight%20on%20Black%20Inventors,%20Scientists,%20and%20Engineers.htm Spotlight on Black Inventors, Scientists, and Engineers] hosted by [http://www.cs.georgetown.edu/ the Department of Computer Science of Georgetown University]. Availability verified 2005-03-03.

External links

- [http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/smallpox/overview/disease-facts.asp Smallpox Fact Sheet] from the CDC
- [http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/smallpox/index.asp CDC.gov] - 'Bioterrorism Agents > Smallpox Info for Specific Groups: What Everyone Should Know', CDC
- [http://www.whale.to/vaccines/smallpox.html Whale.to] - 'Smallpox: The Smallpox Hoax'
- [http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/smallpox/ WHO.int] - 'Smallpox: Historical significance', World Health Organization (WHO) Category:Infectious diseases Category:Viruses Category:Biological weapons ko:천연두 ja:天然痘

Gyeonhwon

Gyeon Hwon (867?-936, reigned 900-935) was the king and founder of Hubaekje, one of the Later Three Kingdoms of Korea. Some records render his name as "Jin Hwon" (진훤). He was also the progenitor of the Hwanggan Gyeon clan. Substantial accounts of his life are preserved in the Samguk Sagi, which presents a single narrative, and the Samguk Yusa, which presents excerpts about him from various sources. Most accounts agree that Gyeon Hwon's father was Ajagae, a farmer of the Lee clan, and that he was born in what is today Gaeun-eup in Mungyeong, North Gyeongsang province. His mother was from the Gwangju area. Agajae later led a local peasant revolt and declared himself a general. Gyeon Hwon is said to have left home at 15 to join the Silla army, at which time he changed his family name from Lee to Gyeon. After becoming the commander of Silla forces in the Jeolla area, he marshalled local peasants to his cause and attacked the southwestern perimeter of Gyeongju, the Silla capital. That attack was beaten back, and he turned back to Jeolla where he seized the city of Gwangju in 892. In 900, Gyeon Hwon declared himself the king of Hubaekje ("later Baekje") and established his capital at Jeonju. He swore to avenge King Uija, the last king of Baekje. From that time forth, his life largely coincides with the history of his short-lived kingdom. Sending an embassy to the Chinese kingdom of Wuyue, he was confirmed by the Wuyue court as a legitimate ruler. Gyeon Hwon took numerous wives after becoming king, and had numerous children by them in addition to the eight sons and a daughter borne by his first wife. In 935, as his kingdom reeled from military defeats, he decided that his fourth son Geumgang should succeed him, rather than his firstborn son Singeom. Singeom, together with his brothers Yanggeom and Yonggeom, imprisoned Gyeon Hwon and killed Geumgang. Gyeon Hwon escaped from prison and fled to his old enemy Wanggeon in Goryeo, who welcomed him and provided him with land and slaves. At Gyeon Hwon's request, the following year he and Wanggeon led the massive Goryeo army which defeated Hubaekje at Seonsan. Later in 936, Gyeon Hwon died of an inflamed tumor.

Korea

— For other places called Korea, see: Korea (disambiguation) Korea refers to South Korea and North Korea together, which were a unified country until 1948. It is situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia, bordering China to the northwest and Russia to the northeast. It is populated by a homogeneous ethnic group, the Koreans, who speak a distinct language (Korean). Korea was partitioned into two halves following World War II. South Korea, supported by the United States, is now a capitalist liberal democracy, and sometimes referred to simply as "Korea". North Korea, supported by the former Soviet Union, remains a Communist state, often described as Stalinist and isolationist. The Unification Flag may represent Korea at international sporting events, but is not an official flag of either country.

Overview

In ancient Chinese texts Korea is referred to as "Rivers and Mountains Embroidered on Silk" (錦繡江山) and "Eastern Nation of Decorum" (東方禮儀之國). During the 7th and 8th centuries, land and sea trading networks connected Korea and Arabia. Koreans used wooden printing blocks by 751. Metal movable type was invented in Korea as early as 1232 (although clay prints were earlier invented in China), before Johann Gutenberg developed metal letterset type. During the Goryeo period, the silk was considered by China to be the best in the world, and pottery made with blue-green celadon glazes became a coveted Korean specialty. In the Joseon era, Korea presided over progress in traditional arts and crafts, such as white celadon glazes, finer silk and paper, and the creation of the Korean alphabet, hangul. Also during this time the first ironclad warships in the world were developed and deployed in Korea. Korea is currently divided into the capitalist South Korea and the communist North Korea. After the Korean War, North Korea's economy rebounded relatively quickly, stronger than that of the South until the 1970s. Since the 1990s, the loss of communist markets in Eastern Europe, poor management, and natural disasters have left the country largely dependent on foreign aid. A famine in the late 1990s likely killed about a million people, although reliable statistics are difficult to come by (Meredith Woo-Cummings, The Political Ecology of Famine: The North Korean Catastrophe and Its Lessons, Tokyo: Asian Dev. Bank Inst., 2001). 1990s In contrast, South Korea after the war remained impoverished into the 1960s, when the dictator-president Park Chung Hee began to funnel investment into chaebol, or family-controlled conglomerates. His rule was marked by the violation of human rights (although on a far smaller scale than in North Korea) as well as by record-breaking economic growth. South Korea now is the 11th largest economy in the world. Presidential elections are held every five years. Both Korean states proclaim eventual reunification as a goal, and a united Korea is very much a part of Korean ethno-cultural identity.

Geography

Korea is located on the Korean Peninsula in North-East Asia. It is bound by two countries and three seas. To the northwest, the Yalu River separates Korea from China and to the north, the Tumen River separates Korea from Russia. The Yellow Sea is to the west, the South China Sea is to the south, and the Sea of Japan (East Sea) is to the east of Korea. Notable islands include Jeju-do, Ulleung-do, and Liancourt Rocks (Dok-do). The southern part and western part of the Korean mainland have well developed plains, while the eastern and northern parts are mountainous. The highest mountain in Korea is Mt. Baekdu (2744m, Changbaishan in chinese). The border with China runs through the mountain. The southern extension of Mt. Baekdu is a highland called Gaema Gowon. This highland was mainly raised during the Cenozoic orogeny and partly covered by volcanic matter. To the south of Gaema Gowon, successive high mountains are located along the eastern coast of the Korean Peninsula. This series of mountains is named Beakdudaegan. Some significant mountains include Sobaeksan (2,184 m), Baeksan (1,724 m), Geumgangsan (1,638 m), Seoraksan (1,708 m), Taebaeksan (1,567 m) and Jirisan (1,915 m). There are several lower, secondary mountain series whose direction is almost perpendicular to that of Baekdudaegan. They are developed along the tectonic line of Mesozoic orogeny and their directions are NW, NWW. As opposed to the old mountains on the mainland, some important islands in Korea were formed by volcanic activity in the recent Cenozoic. Jeju Island, situated off the south coastline of the Korean Peninsula, is a large volcanic island whose main mountain is Mt. Halla (1950 m). Ulleung-do and the Liancourt Rocks (Dok-do) are volcanic islands in the East Sea (Sea of Japan), whose composition is more feslic than Jeju. The volcanic islands tend to be younger as one moves westward. Because the mountainous regions are biased toward the eastern part of the peninsula, the main rivers tend to flow to westwards. Two exceptions are the southward-flowing Nakdong and the Seomjin River. Important rivers running westward include the Yalu, Cheongcheon River, Daedong River, Han River, Geum River, and Yeongsan River. These rivers have vast flood plains and they provide an ideal environment for rice cultivation. The southern and southwestern coastline of the Korean Peninsula is a well-developed Lias coastline. It is known as Dadohae in Korean. Its complicated coastline provides mild seas, and the resulting calm environment allows for safe navigation, fishing, and seaweed farming. In addition to the complex coastline, the western coast of the Korean peninsula has an extremely high tidal amplitude (at Incheon, around the middle of the western coast, it is as high as 9 m). Vast tidal flats are developing on the south and west coastline of the Korean Peninsula.

Demographics

(see also: Demographics of South Korea) The Korean Peninsula is populated almost exclusively by ethnic Koreans, although a significant minority of ethnic